THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING
AFRICAN-AMERICAN ART SONG
An essay by Darryl Taylor, DMA
Song
Cycles to Know
Bibliography
Appendix:
Some African-American Composers of Art Song, with Publisher Information
Other
Resources
The Complete
essay appears here:
The study of
art songs by American composers has, within the last twenty years gained
substantial popularity. Efforts are consciously made by many voice teachers
in this country to include works by Copland, Barber, Duke, Carpenter,
Beach, Griffes, MacDowell, Argento, Bowles, Hoiby, Hundley, and Ives,
among other distinguished American art song composers, in the offering
for their students' consumption. American performers like Leontyne Price,
Marilyn Horne, Dawn Upshaw, Thomas Hampson, and others program this
genre of song in their song recitals, which are popular with their audiences.
As a direct result of this interest shown by voice teachers and professionals,
the song compositions of many American composers have become standard
repertoire. Music scores are readily available. Biographical material
concerning the composers can be found in almost every public library
of music in America. Many of the works have been analyzed and are thoroughly
understood as a result, and thematic catalogs of many American composers
can be accessed for research. Song cycles such as Barber's Hermit Songs,
Argento's Elizabethan Songs, Songs About Spring, Copland's Emily Dickinson
Songs, American Folk Songs, Hoiby's Songs for Leontyne, and various
individual songs of Ned Rorem, Stephen Foster, and others are found
in almost every voice teacher's studio in America. These songs are taught
to students for various reasons, not the least of which is broadening
their exposure to American culture and thereby balancing their study
and performance repertoire which, by necessity, is replete with works
by foreign composers (i.e., non-American). Such practice is to be lauded,
as it not only gives American students of voice a better understanding
of the contributions made by Americans to Western art culture, but it
also ensures the future availability of these works for progeny via
publication and analysis.
There is one
particular problem with this current system of study. The works of African-American
composers are neglected by all but a few American voice teachers and
artists. Commonly, singers are acquainted with select spiritual arrangements
by Harry T. Burleigh or Hall Johnson, and a few songs taken from the
Anthology of Art Songs by Black American Composers. This Anthology is
the most consistently available publication of its kind to be found
in public and university libraries. It is an invaluable resource for
beginning exposure to African-American art song.
It is not uncommon
for an American singer's student or professional recital to include
a group of American art songs, usually at the close of the program.
If African-American composers are acknowledged at all in such a recital
it is usually via spiritual arrangements. This manner of programming
gives a very distinct impression to audience members, purchasers of
recordings, and particularly to young singers beginning to form their
ideas about art culture: the African-American contribution to this culture
is limited to a style of song some 300 years old. The omission of African-American
composers from the standard repertoire taught to American voice students
only serves to fortify this impression. The incorrectness of this impression
is a foregone conclusion. Much research has been done to point out the
contributions of African-American composers.
This article
focuses on the lack of exposure provided singers regarding the wealth
of art songs composed by African-Americans. It discusses reasons for
studying this repertoire and suggests a minimum repertoire with which
every teacher of voice in America should be acquainted.
Lack of
Exposure
Historically
there has been little attention paid to African-American composers of
art song in bibliographic references and periodical articles. Repertoire
books like Music for Voice and The Singer's Repertoire refer, generally,
to spirituals with reference to Black composers. A notable exception
to this is Victoria Etnier Villamil's 1993 A Singer's Guide to the American
Art Song, 1870 - 1980. It references eight African-American composers,
giving in-depth information on five of them.
Additionally, song collections popularly available and
used by teachers of singing have paid little attention to the contributions
of Black composers to art song. A survey of twenty-seven song collections
reveals only two African-American composers, William Grant Still and
George Walker (b. 1922). Walker is represented by three songs in American
Art Songs: A Collection of 20th Century Songs by American Composers
from Charles Ives to Elliot Carter for Medium Voice and Piano; compiled
by Barry O'Neal. Still's song "The Breath of a Rose" appears in A New
Anthology of American Songs: 25 Songs by Native Composers, and three
songs, including the aforementioned are published in Romantic American
Art Songs: 50 Songs by 14 Composers. Excluded in this sampling are Patterson's
Anthology of Art Songs by Black American Composers and Rogie Clark's
Negro Art Songs, both of which are collections dedicated solely to this
subject matter.
Although there are a number of festivals in this country
devoted to art song performance, the works of African-Americans are
rarely, if ever, considered for performance. One is given the impression
that either this repertoire is unavailable or unworthy of performance.
This is an incorrect conclusion. There are many very finely crafted
compositions routinely ignored in this manner.
It has been suggested that few articles on the subject
of Black composers are submitted for publication to important periodicals
such as The Journal of Singing. Young scholars, particularly African-Americans,
should take it upon themselves to, at the very least, submit these articles.
The Importance
of Studying African-American Art Song
African-Americans
have composed in veritably all styles of writing, extending from neo-impressionism,
to neo-romanticism, through atonalism, to what can be best termed eclecticism.
A new generation of composers embraces standard and electronic media
for expressing their craft.
One is made aware of the contributions of African-Americans
to the overall genre of Western Art Music, which is the common tapestry
shared by all westerners, no matter their color or ethnicity. Further,
this is but a patch in the great quilt of civilization's cultural enterprise.
To ignore this body of work is to loosen the threads of this great blanket,
to weaken it.
The study and performance of African-American art song
exposes one to perspectives not typically reflected in other composers.
Poetry and poets generally neglected by non-Black composers are set
with regularity by African-Americans. For example, poets of the Harlem
Renaissance, an important period in the development of poetry in America,
receive much attention. These include Arna Bontemps, J. Weldon Johnson,
Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, and, of course, Langston Hughes. Other
important poets not included in the Harlem Renaissance, such as Paul
Laurence Dunbar, Mari Evans, and Donald Jeffry Hayes, have been set
by these composers. Naturally, their compositions are not limited to
these poets, but include alternative settings of poems by such standard,
non-Black poets as Emily Dickinson, Lord Byron, Edna St. Vincent Millay,
and Walt Whitman. Exposure to the song writing of African-Americans,
then, offers an exciting opportunity for expanded literary knowledge
and alternative settings of standard poets.
Increased performance and study of these songs will produce
an increase in interest. In turn, this will lead to scores being more
readily available, with the most worthy of these becoming standard repertoire.
This is repertoire for all singers, Black and White alike. Voice teachers
and performers should labor to procure and incorporate this music. Much
is to be gained from developing an appreciation of the art songs of
African-Americans. However, without a concentrated effort, this repertoire
is not likely to find its way into the musical life of recital stages
and university communities. If we should lose this valuable resource
due to neglect on the parts of singers and teachers of singing, the
fabric of art culture in America will be weakened and Western civilization
will be all the poorer for it.
Song Cycles
to Know
There is
a vastness of songs by African-American composers such that it requires
a reference book like that of Kagen or Coffin in order to list them
properly and to serve them justly. A bare minimum of repertoire can
be best suggested by pointing out some notable song cycles. With this
approach, the reader will be exposed to a broad sampling of the works
available. Individual songs by the composers herein cited are of value,
as are the works of composers not included in this essay.
HARRY T.
BURLEIGH: PASSIONALE
The Glory of the Day was in Her Face
Her Eyes, Twin Pool
Your Lips Are Wine
Her Eyes, So Deep
Arguably,
the first prominent Black composer in America is Harry T. Burleigh.
He has a distinguished catalog of songs which were quite popular with
singers in the earlier part of this century (especially Christine Miller,
George Hamlin, John McCormack, and Roland Hayes). In the offing are
exquisite individual songs like Little Mother of Mine, Jean, and
The Grey Wolf. His songwriting is balanced and tasteful, and his songs
are models of sincerity and sensitivity to text. Burleigh's important
song cycles include Saracen Songs and Five Songs of Laurence Hope, both
of which are now available in print through Classic Vocal Reprints/E.
C. Schirmer. Of particular importance are his settings of J. Rosamond
Johnsons poetry in the cycle Passionale. This work is the only song
cycle with which this author is acquainted that is dedicated exclusively
to the poetry of this important African-American figure.
Passionale, for high voice and piano, consists of four
songs. The cycle was published by G. Ricordi in 1917. The score can
be borrowed from the New York City Public Library. The poetry is written
from a masculine perspective, in adoration of feminine attributes, but
the songs could conceivably be performed by a soprano or lyric mezzo-soprano.
They are characterized by lyrical melodies in the voice undergirded
by mostly homophonic piano accompaniment. The tessitura of the songs
is middle to high. The difficulty level for both singer and pianist
is medium. The dynamic range required varies with each song. Some soft
singing in a high tessitura is requested. It is harmonically lush, with
chromaticism layered on a firmly diatonic structure. This is a fine
period cycle.
HOWARD SWANSON:
SONGS FOR PATRICIA
Darling Those Are Birds
No Leaf May Fall
One Day
Goodnight
Many African-American
composers have been lauded for the high quality of their song writing.
Particularly praised are the songs of Howard Swanson. William Flanagan,
reviewing three songs of Swanson, said, "They are authentic and in the
best tradition of the song-writing art--sensitive, intimate, and evocative."
(Reisser 1989, 19) Virgil Thompson said, "Howard Swanson is a composer
whose work singers (and pianists, too) should look into. It is refined,
sophisticated of line and harmony in a way not at all common among American
music writers. His songs have an acute elaboration of thought and an
intensity for feeling that recall Faur (Quillian 1951)" (Reisser, 1989,
19). Swanson's friendship with poet Langston Hughes and his subsequent
setting of Hughes poetry gives insight not only to the music of the
African-American community, but also gives an intimate view to the psyche
of the poet. Swanson consulted the poet with regularity while setting
his poetry. His compositions are considered by many to be the definitive
interpretations of the poets work. His individual song settings of
the poems Joy, In Time of Silver Rain, Night Song, Pierrot,
and The Negro Speaks of Rivers reflect his intimate acquaintance with
the inner workings of Hughes poetry.
Acquaintance with the song cycle Songs for Patricia is
encouraged. The poetry is by Norman Rosten (Swanson did not set a cycle
using poems by Hughes). It was published in 1952 by Weintraub Music
Company. The cycle is for high voice and piano. The text is that of
a parent to a child. Singers attempting this cycle should be capable
of high, soft singing. The voice should be lyrical. Dissonant melodic
passages in the voice receive little help from an economical, often
chordal accompaniment. For these reasons the difficulty level for both
singer and pianist is high. Both must be steady, confident musicians.
WILLIAM
GRANT STILL: SONGS OF SEPARATION
Idolatry
Pome
Parted
If You Should Go
A Black Pierrot
Popularly
referred to as "the Dean of African-American Composers", William Grant
Still has been almost universally recognized for his contributions to
American music regardless of his race. He is known to have been enamored
of the voice, having written some nine operas and several remarkable
songs. Jazz influences are to be found in the richness of his harmonic
vocabulary. Individual songs like "Citadel," "Grief," and "Winter's
Approach" bear out this finding. Little known is his song cycle From
the Hearts of Women, from poetry of his wife and oft-times collaborator,
Verna Arvey. Still's career as a composer extended from the late 1920s
through the early 1970s. Perhaps his most influential compositions stem
from his involvement in the Black Nationalist era (c. 1920 - 1940).
During this period, he wrote his Afro-American Symphony, which is probably
his best known work. From this same period comes the song cycle Songs
of Separation.
This setting of five songs by various Black poets (Bontemps,
Philippe Thoby Marcelin, Dunbar, Cullen, and Hughes; all are African-American
with the exception of Marcelin, who is Haitian) was published in 1949
by Leeds Music Corporation. It is now available through William Grant
Still Music, Flagstaff, Arizona. It can be performed by medium high
voices; a male voice may be preferable.
Singing these songs requires a fecundity of emotion.
They convey a story "in which a protagonist moves through irony, bitterness,
and despair to a restorative search for a new love" (Friedberg 1981,
105). The singer and pianist must work in perfect ensemble in order
to project the different atmospheres required of the poetry and music.
At times, the writing for the voice "shows some operatic influence,
as befits its dramatic orientation, but nevertheless retains the compression
and intimacy of the art song" (Friedberg 1981, 105). The construction
of the cycle is palindromic. Songs I and V are written in a quasi-arioso
style, with melodic vocal lines which range from expansive contours
to recitative. Songs II and IV are similar in their chordal treatment
of the accompaniment. Both evoke a hushed atmosphere. Song III is unlike
any of the others. The poetry is a limerick by Dunbar and the musical
treatment is that of a joke. The cycle is fulfilling for all parties
concerned. The singer and pianist are presented with beautiful, challenging
music, and the audience is treated to some of William Grant Stills
best writing in the art song genre.
MARGARET
BONDS: THREE DREAM PORTRAITS
Minstrel Man
Dream Variation
I, Too
As a composer,
pianist, and teacher, Margaret Bonds was fortunate to receive wide acclaim
in her own lifetime. Her talents as a composer were lavished on such
varied genres as choral works, orchestral works, piano pieces, popular
songs, and art songs. Having been personally acquainted with the most
significant Black artists of her day, she learned a great deal about
the voice through association with such great singers as Abbie Mitchell,
Hortense Love, Adele Addison, Betty Allen, Eugene Brice, Lawrence Winters,
Carol Brice, and Leontyne Price. These ties coupled with her extraordinary
talents as a concert pianist lend themselves well to the craftsmanship
found in her various songs and spiritual arrangements.
The most popular of her songs happen to be the ones that
are most accessible in publication. Three Dream Portraits, a song cycle
of poetry by Langston Hughes, is popularly available in the Anthology
of Art Songs by Black American Composers. It was originally published
by G. Ricordi in 1959. The difficulty level for singer and pianist is
medium to medium-difficult, owing to sweeping vocal lines, dramatic
climaxes, complicated rhythms in the accompaniment, and the necessity
for well executed ensemble. The cycle appears in the Patterson Anthology
in the low key. A high key version does exist, but it is harder (though
not impossible) to locate.
Like Howard Swanson, Margaret Bonds had a close friendship
with Langston Hughes. The poets collection The Dream Keeper provided
Bonds with the three poems of this cycle. They reflect on different
themes related to being Black in America. The work is a series of mood
paintings with many characteristics of the jazz style. (Green 1983,
55) Minstrel Man, the first song of the set, emotes poignant irony.
The poetry speaks of the conflict between a Black entertainers gay
outer faade and his inner turmoil. Bondss music reflects this conflict
best by deft usage of modal mixture. The song climaxes dramatically.
Minstrel Man can be easily excerpted from the cycle and performed
separately. The second song is Dream Variation. In this song, Bonds
crafts an atmospheric, dreamlike vision of hopefulness. The piano and
voice move together, though not homophonically, whirling and dancing
as they bring to life Hughes vision of a better world where the color
black is applied to all things beautiful. Song three, I, Too is fashioned
as a military march. The poetry speaks of ultimate triumph in the face
of adversity. Tension builds from the first measures, the voice proclaiming,
I, too, sing America. I am the darker brother! The mounting dissonance
is effortlessly resolved with the statement, Besides, theyll see how
beautiful I am and be ashamed. Both the pianist and the singer must
recognize the nuance of motivic material presented by Bonds in this
song if it is to have the impact intended for ending this moving work
(e.g., the martial quality of the opening bars in the piano, the disjunct
melodic material of the phrase, nobodyll dare say to me, Eat in the
kitchen, then, the menacing quality of the piano part as the voice
states, Tomorrow, Ill sit at the table when company comes, and the
laughing staccati of the piano in the postlude).
HALE SMITH:
BEYOND THE RIM OF DAY
March Moon
Troubled Woman
To a Little Lover-Lass, Dead
The first
all Hale Smith program was presented on 29 May 1955 at the Karamu Procenium
Theatre. This auspicious event saw the premiere of two of Smiths most
significant works for voice, his song cycles The Valley Wind (then entitled
Four Songs) and Beyond the Rim of Day. He has gone on to create many
other works in various genres. Significant works for voice include Two
Love Songs of John Donne for soprano and nine instruments, Two Songs
for Soprano and Violin, Three Patterson Lyrics, and several moving spiritual
arrangements which reflect a strong jazz influence.
Beyond the Rim of Day was composed in 1950, but was published
in 1970 by Marks Music. The poetry is that of Langston Hughes. It is
for high voice and piano and consists of three songs. A fourth song,
on poetry by Anne Spencer, was entitled Innocence. It was deleted
for the present publication. The set lasts approximately eight minutes,
in which time one womans development from youth to defeat and, ultimately,
death are presented. The piano score is intensely reflective of the
text and calls for various soft effects with trills, tremolo, sostenuto
pedaling, and cluster chords. Many specific markings are given for the
pianist." (Carman 1977, 22) A lyric voice is called for here, being
required to sing some disjunct melodies, soft and loud high tones, and
enunciation of the delicate and emotive texts. Both performers of this
cycle must be mature, advanced musicians.
LESLIE
ADAMS: FIVE MILLAY SONGS
Wild Swans
Branch By Branch
For You There Is No Song
The Return From Town
Gone Again Is Summer The Lovely
Leslie Adams
(b. 1932) is the youngest of the composers featured in this essay. He
has written many lovely songs for voice and piano in the forty years
he has been composing professionally. Equally at ease writing for orchestra,
chamber ensemble, organ, piano, and chorus, his treatment of art song
is particularly praiseworthy. Important cycles include African-American
Songs, with six texts by African-American poets, and The Wider View.
Adams has set various poems by Cleveland native Joette McDonald. The
importance of this collaboration is yet to be determined, but it does
represent the most significant settings of her poetry. His stirringly
expressive song, "For You There Is No Song" appears in Patterson's anthology.
Subsequent to this publication, the song has become popular with young
singers. It is listed individually in Villamil's Singer's Guide to the
American Art Song. This song is part of a cycle of five poems by Edna
St. Vincent Millay, entitled Millay Songs. It is particularly recommended.
Millay Songs was written in 1977 and is available from
American Composers Alliance. There are two versions, one for high voice,
the other for medium voice and piano. There songs are perhaps the finest
of Adams' considerable catalog. The beautiful melodies of the voice
are firmly supported by a piano accompaniment that is keenly reflective
of the text. Millay's texts are, for the most part, melancholic. They
express sentiments of the tedium of daily life, lost love, and lost
opportunities. The penultimate song, "The Return From Town," is shocking
in its contrast to the previous three songs. It, too, speaks of opportunities
lost, but does so almost as a matter of jest (the text says, succinctly,
"I saw someone fair. I ignored him and went into my own house. There
I already have a handsome husband.")
Picturesque is the best word one may use to describe
the piano treatment of these songs. Much like the songs of Schumann,
the piano intercedes to complete fragments of thoughts where words fail.
A fine pianist himself, Adams is very specific with markings. The voice
part is written with sensitivity for the expressive powers of a lyric
instrument. Decidedly, this composer knows how to maximize effects possible
from singers. On high notes, time is given for the blossoming of tone.
Lines are written for the voice in such a way as to encourage vowel-to-vowel
singing, the framework necessary for true legato. There are some complexities
here that will require specific attention if a unified ensemble is to
prevail. The level of difficulty for this work is medium to medium high.
It is a gratifying piece to perform.
In Conclusion
The study
of art songs by African-American composers has been of interest to various
scholars since the specific genre was first established at the turn
of the century. Burleigh mused on possibilities for exploring, in common
European forms, his heritage of spirituals. Dett and White provided
fodder for the discussion. For almost a century now, composers have
been developing this genre, some intentionally, others not so. (Some
African-American composers would rather not have their race associated
with their compositions. They prefer to be known as good composers rather
than good African-American composers. Their output, nonetheless, is
part of the definition of the aforementioned genre. Until all Americans
can be equally identified as Americans, without the need for hyphenated
designations, a subset of African-American composers will always be
in place and the compositions of each of these composers will be part
of the subset.) Within the last thirty years individual efforts have
been put forth by noted scholars to make the neglected songs of outstanding
African-American composers more accessible to interested parties. In
particular, scholars at universities have written dissertations on the
subject and bibliographic references now make it somewhat easier to
locate information and actual repertoire. However, all of these efforts
have not been enough to yet inspire a collective appreciation and respect
of these songs among all American singers and teachers of singing. Although
it is not assumed that this essay will, in and off itself, be the miracle
cure to this malady, it is hoped that some interest in the art songs
of African-Americans will be sparked by reading it. The songs discussed
herein are but a fraction of those awaiting the seeker of new and exciting
repertoire. They must be performed frequently, if they are to have life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carman, Judith
Elaine. "The Song Cycle in the United States: 1900-1970, Part III."
The National Association of Teachers of Singing Bulletin 33 (February
1977).
Cuney-Hare, Maud. Negro Musicians and Their Music. New
York: Da Capo Press, 1974.
Friedburg, Ruth C. American Art Song and Poetry: Volume
I America Comes of Age. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1981.
Green, Mildred Denby. Black Women Composers: A Genesis.
Massachusetts: Twayne Publishers, 1983.
Patterson, Willis C. Anthology of Art Songs by Black
American Composers. New York: E.B. Marks Music, 1977.
Reisser, Mildred. "Howard Swanson: Distinguished Composer."
Black Perspectives in Music 17, I - II (1986).
Scanlon, Roger. "Spotlight on American Composers: Hale
Smith." The National Association of Teachers of Singing Bulletin 33
(May 1977).
Southern, Eileen. The Music of Black Americans. New York:
W. W. Norton and Company, 1983.
Tischler, Alice. Fifteen Black American Composers: A
Bibliography of Their Works. Michigan: Information Coordinators, Incorporated,
1981.
Villamil, Victoria Etnier. A Singer's Guide to the American
Art Song, 1870 - 1980. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1993.
APPENDIX:
SOME AFRICAN-AMERICAN COMPOSERS OF ART SONG
COMPOSER/PUBLISHER INFORMATION
Harry T. Burleigh, 1866
- 1949 CVR
Clarence Cameron White,
1880 - 1960 CF
R. Nathaniel Dett, 1882
- 1943 GS
Carl Diton, 1886 - 1962
EBM
Camille Nickerson, 1887
- 1982 LOC
Florence B. Price, 1888
- 1953 LOC/EBM/HP
Hall Johnson, 1888 - 1970
CF
Cecil Cohen, 1894 - 1967
EBM
William Grant Still, 1895
- 1978 WGS/EBM
Edward Boatner, 1898 -
1981 ECS
Frederick Douglass Hall,
1898 - 1982 LOC
William Dawson, 1899 -
1990 LOC
John W. Work, Jr., 1901
- 1967 EBM/ECS
Undine Smith Moore, 1904
- 1989 LOC/EBM/HP
Howard Swanson, 1907 -
1978 EBM/CF
Evelyn Pittman, b. 1910
LOC
Mark Fax, 1911 - 1974
EBM/LOC
Margaret Bonds, 1913 -
1972 EBM/LOC
John Duncan, 1913 - 1975
LOC
Edgar Rogie Clark, 1913
- 1978 EBM
Noah Ryder, 1914 - 1964
LOC
Zenobia Powell Perry,
b. 1914 LOC
Thomas Kerr, 1915 - 1988
EBM/LOC
Ulysess Kay, 1917 - 1995
GS
George Walker, b. 1922
SM
Julia Perry, 1924 - 1979
HP/LOC
Hale Smith, b. 1925 EBM
Robert Owens, b. 1925
EBM
T.J. Anderson, b. 1928
ACA
Betty Jackson King, 1928
- 1994 HP/LOC
Lena McLin, b. 1929 NK
Noel DaCosta, b. 1930
EBM
Frederick Tillis, b. 1930
LOC
David Baker, b. 1931 EBM/LOC
Leslie Adams, b. 1932
ACA/EBM
Coleridge-Taylor Perkinson,
b. 1932 EBM
Roger Dickerson LOC
Olly Wilson, b. 1937 EBM
Robert A. Harris, b. 1938
LOC
Wendell Logan, b. 1940
EBM
Charles Brown, b. 1940
EBM
Dorothy Rudd Moore b.
1941 ACA/EBM
Adolphus C. Hailstork,
b. 1941 EBM
Wallace Cheatham, b. 1945
LOC
Charles Lloyd, Jr., b.
1948 EBM
William Banfield, b. 1961
LOC
Nkeiru Okoye, b. 1972
KEY TO PUBLISHER
INFORMATION
ACA American
Composers Alliance
CF Carl Fischer,
Inc.
CVR Classical
Vocal Reprint
EBM E. B.
Marks, Inc (Hal Leonard, Inc)
ECS E. C.
Schirmer
GS G. Schirmer
HP Hildegard
Press
LOC Library
of Congress
NK Neil Kjos
Music Company
SM Southern
Music Company
WGS William
Grant Still Music
Other
resources helpful in locating repertoire:
The Center for Black Music
Research
Columbia College
Chicago, IL
The Schomberg Collection
New York Public Library
New York, NY
The Azelia Hackley Collection
Detroit Public Library
Detroit, MI
Center for Afro-American Studies
The University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
